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SUPERTRAINING
STRENGTH AND THE
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Objective
It is the objective of this book to explore the phenomenon of strength and to apply to physical conditioning the
discoveries
e i
from this quest,
with
a particular emphasis on the development of
special fitness
and
preparednessfor sportirtgperfomance
at the highest level. In meeting this objective, the concepts of work
capacity, fitness and preparedness,
as
well as the different
types
of strength are examined in detail to provide the
necessary h e w o r k for research and practical application of all
findings.
It analyses the different types of strength, their roles in human movement and how they may be developed
efficientli.
In
illustrating how scientific research may be applied in training or rehabilitation, it discusses the
various means and methds of strength training,
ranging
from
resistance tmhing with weights to impulsive
('plyometric') loading without weights. It identifies which specific types of
strength
fitness are required by the
athlete, the forms in which strength is produced over the range of a given sporting movement and the most
appropriae sequences for developing the different types of strength fitness over a prolonged training
period.
-
Since considerableresearch reveals
t a
strength is not a single hdamental fitness factor like cardiovascular
ht
endur~ce, is often implied, this textbook introduces the reader to the exquisite complexity of strength via an
as
understanding of the biomechanics, functional anatomy agd physiology of the human movement system. This is
mpIy as an intellectual exercise, but to prevent the
reader
from devising sport specific training
'
based on deficient traditional schedules which may have
ignored
the mtanvs of the different types of
strength and the specificity of training for a
given
sport and individual.
This text, although aimed primarily at the exercise scientist, specialist high level coach and physical educator,
also
has direct relevance to the sports medical practitioner or therapist who may
be
involved with rehabilitating
athletes whose return to top level competition depends on restoration of the necessary type of strength fitness.
What is Strength
?
Strength is an essential component of all human performance and its formal development can no long& be
neglected in the preparation of any athlete. Successful strength conditioning
depends
on a thorough understanding
of all processes underlying the production of strength by the body. Therefore, it is appropriate that this text
commences with an outline of the structure and h c t i o n of the more important systems involved in producing all
types
of
strength.
Strength is the product of muscular action initiated and orchestrated by electrical processes
in
the nervous
system of the body. Classically,
strength is defined as the ability of a given muscle or group of muscles to
generate
muscularforce
d e r spe&$c conditions.
Thus,
m i m a 1 strength
is the ability of
a
particular group of
muscles to produce a maximal voluntary contraction in response to optimal motivation against an external load.
This strength is usually produced
in
competition and may also be referred to as the
competitive
-mum
strength,
CFmax.
It
is
not the same
absolute strength,
which Zatsiorsky (1995) calls
Fmrn,
the
maximum
of all
maxima, and which usually is associated with the greatest force which can
be
produced by a given muscle group
under involuntary muscle stimulation by, for example, electrical stimulation ofthe nerves supplying
the
muscles
or recruitment of
'a
bwerful
stretch
reflex by sudden loading.
For certain practical purposes, absolute strength may be regarded as roughly equivalent to maximal eccentric
strength, which is difficult or impractical to measure, because a maximum by definition refers to the limit point
preceding structural and functional failure of the system. Thus, it is apparent that specific neural feedback
mechanisms, like governors
in
a mechanical engine, exist to prevent a muscle from continuing
to
produce force to
the
point of
mechanical
failure. This is why it probably would be more
practical
to use the maximum explosive
isometric strength (produced under so-called
maximum
plyometric conditions or explosive
thrust
against a
dynaniometer, as discussed in
Ch
5)
as a working approximation
to
absolute strength (or
Fmm).
To prevent
confusion, it also should be noted that the term 'absolute strength' sometimes is used to define the maximum
strength which can be produced by an athlete irrespective of bodymass.
'
m
k e w e
sfrag&
~autput
up;
g
S%,
a b y
a
by
o
b
b e t w a
'fZ;m
d
CFam
is
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-t-
a
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mmckarn
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enabkg
o&
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a m
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.& &
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a
g&wm.@JJidual
wx@
qm#ic
condi~slsgag.
execdhg
a
well-defined
lift
or
combination
of
W,
su&as,the
%pat,
snatch
o
the
wei&Wtkg
Totai).
r
4
by
The
biomechanics
of
strength
prodwtkn
Neuromwular
stimulation
and
c o n W
*
Adaptation
to
physical
laading
The various
types
of
strength
fitness
The
specificity
of
muscular
and
neuromuscu~ar
training
The
Origins
of
Strength
Training
Science
Strength
training
has
always
been
synonymous
with
the
so-caIled
'Iron
Game',
a
broad
generic
term
for
the
competitive
lifting
of
heavy
objects
6y
strong
men
during
the
last
century
or
so.
Feats
'of
lifting
strength,
however,
have
appeared
throughout
the
hisfory
of
most
nations,
but
it
has
only
been
in
very
recent
times
that
training
to
produce
strength
has
become
a
scientific
discipline.
This
science
did
not
arise
overnight:
it
is
.the
culminating
point
of
thousands
of
y &
of
trial-and-error
methods
of
training.
e
The
earliest
reference
to
formal
strength
training
'wcurs
in
Chinese
texts
dating
to
as
far
back
as
3600BC,
when
emperors
made
thqir,subjects
exercise
daily
(Webster,
1976).
During
the
Chou
dynasty
(1
122-249BC),
potential
soldiers
had
to
pass
weight-lifting
tests
before
being
allowed
to
enter
the
armed
forces. There
is
abundant
evidence
of
weight-training
used
in
ancient
Egypt
and
India,
whilelhe
Greeks
left
numerous
sculptures
and iIlustrations
of
their
athletes
training
with
stone
weights.
In
fact,
the
6th
century
BC
was
known
as
the
Xge
of
Skength'
and
weight-lifting
competitions
involved
the
lifting
of
huge
stones.
Thd
renowned
ancient
physician,
Gala,
referred
frequently
to
exercising
with
weights
(halteres),
with
his
treatise
Preservation
offieafh
even
classifying
exercises
into
'quick'
exercises
without
weights
and
'violent'
exercises
which
are
performed
with
weights.
The
Roman
poet
Martial
(40-104AD)
pondered:
"Why
do
the
strong
men
labour
with
their
stupid
dumbbells?
A
far
better
task
for
men
is
digging
a
vine
trench'!.
Weight
training
was
not
confined
to
men:
a
wall
-,&om
a
Roman
villa
in
Piazza
Almeria
i
Sicily
depicted
a
girl
exercising
4 t h
weights.
n
.
.
u
-
Itshould
not
be
surprising,
then,
that
the quest
for
superior
strength
led
tw\nnpe,rous
systems,of
strength
training,
thereby
laying
a
solid experiential
foundation
for
the
far
more
refined
methods
of
today.
During
the
16th
century
in
Europe,
books
on
weight-training
began
to
emerge,
with
Sir
Thomas
Elyot's
text
on
the
topic
being
published
in
England
in
1531.
Several
universities
in
France
and
Germany
offered
weight
training
and'in
1544,
Joackm
Camerius,
a
lecturer
at
Leipzig
University,
wrote
several
books
recommending
weight
training
as
an
essential
activity
for
the
model
school.
In
1728,
John
Paugh
published
A
Physiological,
Theoretic
mid
Practical
Tre&e
on
the
Utility
of
Muscular
Exercisefor
Restoring
the
Power
to
the
Limbs,
revealing
that
even
then
it was
recognised
fhat
weight
bahhg
o f f d
therapeutic
benefits.
In
the
1 8 6 0 ~ ~
Scot,
Archibald
MacLaren,
the
ccrmpifea
the
first
system
of
physical
training
with
dumbbells
and
barbells
for
the
British
Army
and
formalised
a
crude
form
of
progressive
overloading.
Some
of
his
ideas
appeared
in
McMllanYs
Magazine.
(1863)
in
his
article,
"National
Systems
of
Bodily
Exercise",
which
compared
various
systems
of
physical
training
used
at
that
t&e.
_.
pioneers
of Strength
Training
The
path
to
strength
training
science
is
synonymous
with
the
history
of
many
of
the
legendary
heroes
of
yesteryear,
ranging
itom
the
biblical
Samson
and
the
bull-libg
Miio
of
Italy
to
the
Russian
superheavy
weightliftex,
Alexeyev.
The
showmen
and
strong
man
entertainers
of
19th
century
Europe
in
particular,
laid
the
mogt
solid
foundatiolls
for
the
systematic
development
of
formal
strength
and
physique
training
methods
and
the
ewentuaI
acceptance
of
the
use
of
these
methods
in
the
g
d
fitness
and
sports
specific
s t r e d
training
revolution
of
today.
Spacepermits
the
mention
of
only
a
few
of
these
pioneering
strong
men
of
the
past,
so
the
history-mind&
reader'is
well
advised
to
read
David
Webster's
fascinatingand
thorough
book,
T h e
Iron
Game",
which
presents
the
feats
of
these
men
fiom
the
distant
past
to
1975,
upon
which
this
brief
summary
is
based.
On
the
basis
of-manyyears
of
research,
Webster
isolates
the
Italian
circus
and
fairground
performer,
Felice
Napoli,
as
the
initiator
of
the
strong
man
boom
on
an
international
scale.
Born
in
1820,
some
of
his
most
ilksbrious
disciples
included
Professor
Attila
(Louis
Durlacher)
and
Eugen
Sandow
(Frederick
Mdler).
The
German-born
Attila,
in
turn,
became
so
wegl-known
that
he
attracted
as
his
pupils
some
of
the
world's
most
famous
physical
culturalists
and
many
rulers
of
Europe.
Royalty
whom
he
taught
included
King
George
of
eeece,
King
Edward
of
England
(while
he
was
Prince
of
Wales),
Crown
Prince
Frederick
who
became
King
Haakon
of
Norway,
the
six
children
of King
Christian
of
Denmark,
the
Queen
Mother
Alexandra
of
England,
Princess
Dagmar
(who
became
Empress
of
Russia
and
,motherof
Tsar
Nicholas),
a d
the Duchess
o
Cumber1and
f
mFem=
At
the
time,
the
training
of
royalty,
the
wealthy
and
the
famous
with
weights
and
specialised
exercises
was
a
well-established
and
desirable
profession,
predating
the
current
generation
of
so-called
personal
tmipep
jtly
about
150
years.
The
fame
and
fortune
of
the
strongmen of
those
days
were a
result
of
their
regular
and
ydl-pbli-
one-on-one
stage
challenges
and
entertainment
hall
competitions
using
some
highly
individual
and
mtasual
hnelatml
two
arm
lifts,
swings,
supports
and
manoeuvres
against
loads
of
vehicles,
humans
and
specially
contrived
barb&
teachers
or
mentors
of
'physical
culture'.
many
strongmen
of
his
time,
he
was
a
generous
sponsor
of
many
ch
hygienic
conditions
of
working
and
living
for
all,
including
th
management.
As
part
of
his
vision,
he
pressed
for
the
introduction
of
physical
education
and
sport
as
compulsory
school
subjects,
and
the
regular
examination
of
pupils
by
school
doctors
and
dentists.
At
the
H - f
M&jesv
Xing
Geergie
h
confmed
an
mi-
&now
zqmn
Mr.
Eu;pen
Sadow,
i
mrldrenmed
-.
t
&
- - - e ~ p i i
f
k d
e r
'afsdie~tific&siz:d
cul&ire.-
Mf.
S a n d o n r j ~
kd
having
had
the
honour
of
'Mmg.
,:
:
*;
u ~ & d ~ i ~ ~ f ~ s o ~ o - f ; ~ d i e & ~ c
Physied
Csciwe
t?~
his
Majesty.
Z k
e n
interest
$hi&
rke
king
has
always
ta&n
in
the
--
-
.
-
'-fhere&h'&irehTe&'to-fi&&&~*s~~%
%SF&>
~amiolu~s
ap~intimnt
mustL6e
ieiarded
'hr
b'
sciensificphfiical
cut&re,
and
fh-erejs
n
d d t
f b f
o
co&~&bly
in&e&e
h e p o m p
d
i6b
sdence
of
f
M..
,S+W
is
a
man
who
hqs
c&eF-by
his
?owtz
national,bt,a
wbrldfactor
in
thescience
@of_
phY~i'd~&8eneracy
which
in
fomw
er&
has'
'
I-
-I
-In
many
respects,
fh&efore,-Sandow
yai
oSk
of
wifh
the
Mstor!j
of
his efforts
r+dGig
tl@'the.mode@
@lienom'encm
m e k
novel
&r
inbvative.
int&esth@i,
&&ow's
rnethods'fwused
skill
as
the
founddon
of
be"&,
m+proa&
t&i&Cas
dm&.co
be
by
c a r d i o v d a r
scientists
s d i
&
DF
'#em&
C&+T
ef
the
USA,
who
mas
Jv*
tr
hwnplaye
'Tyazhekya
A W k ' ,
,thename
of-pbysieal
cuWe
fop.
.the
pre
h a m e
hisp~pIfs,~
iucBuding
-er
fam01~s.sh-on~
George
&ckenschmidt,
whp
q
t e a ~ h
brpl
$
that
he
knew.
H~ketrscbmidt,
his
b k ,
g
I
in
Fg?
to
&ye,
added
that
.
stfongest
I &
of
&at
-;inchding
W
S a d w ,
were
tL:ahd
accordhg
to,Krayevsk@s-system.
significant
success
in
basbell
lifts.
Ibyewlq
was
president
of
the
jury
at
the
fmt
world
hamp pi om hips
in
1898.
-
..,,
b$e~skgr's
pewma1
example,
e&msiasm,
d a r i t y
md
the
poplaity
of
his
group
af
I
L
4
+fom.
other
book,
The
Ddopment
OfPhysiccai
Strength
with
Kettlebells
anal
without
KeslebeIls,
His
pubfished
in
1900and
reprinted
three
titnes
(1902,1909,1916)
after
his
death
(1901).
aftention
t o
therapeutic
gymnastics
in
his
Diagram
o
Medico
G)rmnasc
Uses
and
its
f
vsky
was
especially
concerned
with
farming
correct
breathit
could
b
i
Ma
cable
m
device
adding
1
those t
c
manufa
believe
method
Intc
coacha
levers,
elastie
springs
and
cables,
friction
resistance
number
of
weight
training,
bodybuilding
exercises
and
techniques
which
are
been
tried
and
tested
in
that
burgeoning
exploration
era
of
finding
the
best
e
of
the
earlier
authors
offered
insights
which
even
today
tend
to
be
ignored
by
some
,
Paschal1
(1454)
wrote:
%
ment
of
the
useable
musclefibres.
yometrio
training
pay
any
attention to
the
immutable
and
can
be
unconsciously
or
consciously
conditioned
by
training
actions.
ariably
were
replaced
by
more
impressive
thus,
the
modern
fitness
public
has
been
deprived
dimowing
the
true
designers
and
ence
of
Training
Philosophies
different
scientific
and
educational
cultures
in
the
West
and
the
East
had
a
profound
impact
aspects
of
strength
and
general
fitness
training.
In
the
earliest
days
of
the
-Wength
travelled
extensively
to
learn
fiom
colleagues
and
teachers
with
different
outlooks
despread
attention.
With
the
advent
of
stige
of sporting
success
meant
that
years
after
both
World
W r ,
Russia'
as
s
with
the
running
for
health
and
doctrine,
the
paradigm
'and
general
health
depends
predominantly
on
prolonged
endurance
o
'aerobic'
r
th
Benefits
of
strength

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