Theory and how to evaluate it.pdf

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Case et al.,
Criminology
Theory and how to evaluate it
KEY ISSUES
This should help you to:
Define the concept of theory and understand the purpose of it in the context
of criminological study;
Evaluate different theories by understanding how to test the different
elements;
Consider the main theoretical schools in criminology including classicism,
positivism, interpretivism and critical criminology.
INTRODUCTION
Understanding criminological theories is essential if you are to identify, interpret, and assess
criminal activities and why we control them. Grasping these theories will play a vital role in your
degree; they underpin this entire subject, and you will be expected to know and make reference to
different theories throughout your degree. You should not worry about this because learning these
theories should not be difficult.
If theory is introduced gently and with the proper guidance and encouragement most students
come to value its use in drawing together a logical narrative (story or set of ideas) from disparate
information. It serves as a bridge between the real world, the research, and your learning. Reading
a theory is to travel into someone else’s mind and perceive reality the way they do. In fact
sometimes all of us work with theory. Theory is the assumptions that allow us to make sense of
the world; it allows us to make choices that work for us and to protect ourselves. We sometimes
call this common sense – choosing not to walk alone at night down a dark alley is something that
many choose because they have learnt that going down the alley might be dangerous. We have
taken data and built an understanding of our world – a theory about danger and dark allies. That
is all criminological theorists do. The theorist takes you on a journey and explains what they are
thinking and how you might better understand parts of the world. They show you the evidence on
which their ideas are based and explain how they are interpreted in order to build their hypotheses.
They enable us to make sense of parts of the world that we have not got firsthand knowledge
about and explain things outside out experiences. They also explain how they fit into other ideas
or theories that already exist. The theorist:
1. takes a complicated part of our lives or our world;
2. takes information from lots of observations or from asking lots of people about that
activity;
3. draws out important conclusions that helps us to understand the activity;
4. this also allows us to predict when the phenomenon might recur; and,
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5. if it is something negative then the theory should throw light on how to prevent it.
A useful theory therefore helps us to understand part of what is going on around us and may also
help to predict when certain events may happen. Theory therefore allows people to unravel and
understand things which are otherwise very complicated, such as the nature of unacceptable
offensive and criminal behaviour, societies desire to control it, and the means they use to alter,
punish and prevent such damaging behaviour. A theory synethsisesa substantial amount of
information collected from observing the real world and tries to discern patterns so making sense
of what might otherwise be just lots of independent pieces of information. Criminological and
social science theories therefore look for general truths; a useful theory might explain the
circumstances or conditions under which a particular behaviour or outcome is likely and why those
conditions are important to the outcome. It should therefore allow us to prevent it from happening
(see figure 12.1). Ultimately, a theory enables us to identify and name a problem, understand and
predict it and plan a means to deal with it.
Figure 12.1: the theoretical process
Identification
Observations
Conclusions
Predictions
Prevention
What do you think?
You live in a house with 4 other students and you have very little money and you are very careful
not to overspend. Every Saturday you go shopping and buy a packet of digestive biscuits. There
are 21 biscuits in each packet and these are your treat, you allow yourself 3 biscuits a day.
You start to notice that biscuits are going missing but no-one will own up to taking them. They
all dismiss you as petty, why would you care – you should be willing to share with your friends.
You become obsessive and watch the kitchen all the time, noting when people go in and then
checking your biscuits. Over a few weeks you feel you note that every time one of the biscuits
is missing Amy, one of your flatmates, has been in the kitchen by herself.
This is a theory – you believe that Amy has been taking the biscuits. Is this definite? Is it proof?
Is it enough to confront Amy?
If you are sure you then believe that you know – but it is still a theory. There is no hard proof.
However, the knowledge, the theory, allows you to make choices about how to deal with the
problem. In order to try to resolve things you may not need actual proof, your theory may be
enough to give you some options about how to resolve the issue:
You could confront Amy, maybe get cross and have an argument. However, she may
deny it. Also she is a friend and, as your flatmates say it is only biscuits. Is it worth losing
a friend over, even if she has been underhand and lied?
If Amy is very short you could now just put the biscuits on top of a high cupboard and
the problem would be sorted without needing to have an argument, and without losing
a friend.
The theory gives you an idea of how you may solve the problem. If you think things through
there is usually more than one way to deal with any problem and a theory may help.
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The example in the ‘what do you think?’ box shows you that there is no reason why you should
find studying theory difficult, it just requires different ways of looking at ideas and information.
Theorising about the world around us opens up a wealth of stimulating insights into the whole
area of criminology. It affords a much fuller understanding of our world, our society and peoples’
behaviours. Theories help us to understand how and why things happen so they can help to show
us where we need more research or how we might tackle problem behaviour in a way that might
prove to be effective. So although some people have a perception of theory as something that does
not do anything useful theories in criminology are generally very practical.
This chapter will consider what a theory is, how to assess a theory, and explain some of the
overarching ideas in criminology in a way that can be understood by you even if you are new to
the field. It will simplify and explain theorists’ ideas without distorting the core of the theory. It
will thereby afford you the opportunity to read and better understand those theorists and so assist
you to use the theories in your studies and to be willing to open your mind to other theories that
will be introduced in other parts of this book. It is
not
meant as a substitute for reading the primary
texts (see Newburn, 2009 for excerpts from original criminology texts, the key readings for most
of the theories covered in section 2 or you can, of course, read the originals in full) but to help you
understand those tests when you do go to read them.
Each core theory will be presented through an initial explaination, then an analysis of its strengths
and weaknesses. Introduced in this way a study and consideration of core theory can be very
valuable throughout your studies. It can help you to develop analytical and critical skills which will
serve you well long after your degree, too (see Chapter 30 – Employability). Looking at theory
allows you to think logically and to find weaknesses and strengths in your own and other theories
and ideas. It may even give you the confidence to think creatively about some of the issues you
study in criminology. Please remember that all learning is a tool you can use when you approach
new questions.
What is a Theory?
Criminology and the real importance of theory is maybe best understood once you recognise that
the subject is all about questions. Instead of thinking about theory, it is probably sensible to think
about answers to questions. There are many theories in criminology and students often ask which
is correct – they want to know which theory gives the right answer, but this is the wrong way of
looking at things. It is the wrong question. The important thing to remember is that most theories
have an element of truth in them and most have areas where they do not hold true at all. That does
not mean that one theory is right and another wrong, rather it means that one theory (Theory A)
is a more useful answer to a particular question than is another (Theory B). Once you understand
that each theory is answering a slightly different question or wants to give an answer which will be
useful to a different audience, you will understand that they are each discussing slightly different
aspects of the same puzzle, and therefore that each may have something to offer. So far from
being competing claims they may each be adding a useful facet to an understanding of a very
complex issue (see Chapter 17 – Integrated theories). Each therefore is of use but each needs to
be considered alongside the question it was trying to answer. In trying to understand or assess a
theory it is sensible to consider some basic questions:
Why is this theorist making this claim – what questions are they trying to answer?
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What is the significance of the claim, what does it say that might be important /
useful or worthwhile?
What is the problem with the theory, what does it assume and are those
assumptions acceptable?
What is controversial in the theory and is that controversy useful, does it challenge
policy or practice and make you think again?
Who or which theories seem to disagree with this theory? What are the points of
disagreement and which is better argued? Do the disagreements arise because each
is answering a slightly different question or intended for a different audience?
Once you understand that the subject is best approached through questions it is easy to see that
often our understanding or reading of criminology is not shaped by theory or answers but by which
questions we choose to answer. For example, most people first ask: why do people offend? But is
that the right question? Before there can be a breach of rules or an offense there has to be a rule
that one is expected to obey. So an important early question might be why are certain behaviours
unacceptable – this was something discussed in chapter 3 which asks the question – 'what is
crime?'. Other questions one might ask include:
In what sense, if at all is a general theory of criminology either possible or desirable?
What is the point of conceptual claims (claims based on ideas) and how can one evaluate
them?
In which sense can one speak of the relative merits of different criminological theories or
ideas?
The important thing to remember throughout your studies is that you must be an active learner
which means that you do not just accept and learn what you are told and what you read but rather
that you think and think critically about all that information. This does not mean that you have to
criticise everything but rather that you consider it all and learn to discern what is good or useful
from what may be bad, of little use or may even be damaging. On top of coming to these
conclusions it is imperative that you be able to explain why something is useful or something else
may be damaging – that you support your claims with reasoned argument.
Testing a Theory
In criminology as in all social science a theory needs to be relevant to the real world. If it has been
developed with care it should illuminate or help one to understand situations, feelings, human
behaviour or human interactions. When reading theories or explanations of behaviours you may
want to asses the following issues and ask some or all of the questions in figure 12.2.
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Logical
consistency
•Is the theory clear and
does it make sense?
This might be called
logical
consistency.
Here, you are here trying to decide whether it is clear which
questions the theory is trying to answer and whether it manages to
answer them. Do all the parts of the theory hold together, or are there
contradictions?
Coverage
•Linked to the question of whether it makes sense is the question of
whether everything included in the theory is necessary.
A good theory
should explain complex ideas relatively briefly (though it may not always
feel brief). This is often referred to as
Parsimony.
•As well as asking if everything covered is necessary, does the theory
ignore aspects which are essential
and should have been included or at
least explained? For example, much criminological theory fails to
consider whether age or gender might make a difference to its utility as
an idea.
Breadth of claims
•Does the theory
try to explain all criminal behavior or only certain
types of crime?
Does it apply at all places and in all times or does it
only explain e.g. crime in the night-time economy or crime in rural
areas? Does it explain the criminal activities of all different types of
people or should it be seen as explaining only, for example, youth
crime or male crime. It is always worth considering whether a theory is
limited by individual characteristics such as race, gender or age or by
situational characteristic such as urban or rural or a particular country.
Often theories do not state they are limited in these ways, they are
often written as f they apply to all people, as if they are generally
applicable. However, if all the data supporting a theory is from
particular groups (male, the young, a particular ethnic group or a
particular type of environment) then there is good reason to question
its more general applicability. If the theory comes from abroad or is
based on data collected in a one state its findings may not apply in
other countries as parts of it may depend on local cultural or ethical
values. Theories should clarify all of these aspects and if they fail to do
so then that is one aspect that you can question about the theory but
please remember that failing to confine a theory does not mean that
the ideas have no worth, merely that their worth is confined to a
particular time, place, type of behavior or type of person.
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